Political Sociology
Akbar Zolfaghari; Taha Ashayeri; Tahereh Jahanparvar
Abstract
IntroductionIn today’s world, women’s political participation holds significant importance, serving as the foundation of sustainable development. Political development has transcended gender segregation, and achieving balance in this area requires the simultaneous, synchronized, and balanced ...
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IntroductionIn today’s world, women’s political participation holds significant importance, serving as the foundation of sustainable development. Political development has transcended gender segregation, and achieving balance in this area requires the simultaneous, synchronized, and balanced presence of both men and women. In Iran, despite the Iranian Islamic Revolution and the expansion of opportunities for women’s free participation in political affairs, multiple obstacles still hinder their full engagement. Given the importance of political participation and its growing trend in Iran, numerous studies have been conducted on this issue over the past decades. However, research on this topic often yields inconsistent results. Using a meta-synthesis approach, the current study aimed to identify, categorize, and propose solutions to obstacles to women’s political participation in Iran. The primary objective was to synthesize findings from both qualitative and quantitative research on obstacles to women’s political participation in Iran, providing a comprehensive and cohesive analysis of existing studies.Literature ReviewOver the last century, as public awareness has increased, the concept of participation (musharekat in Persian) has gained momentum. The term musharekat derives from the infinitive mufa'ala (Shafi'i Motahar, 2003), which literally means to cooperate and participate (Lutz & Caldecott, 1996; Wily, 1997). In an idiomatic sense, it refers to the collective engagement of individuals in development programs (Khoshfar et al, 2018). Political participation is a key form of participation and a fundamental aspect of any political system (Zolfaghari et al., 2022). It signifies the conscious decision of individuals to take part in determining their own destiny, to move in the path of societal progress and development (Niazi et al., 2018). Political participation refers to the voluntary political activities of people in electing rulers (Pourrahim, 2011), exercising sovereignty in elections, influencing decision-making, and contributing to governance (Ghafari & Al-Ghafoor, 2018). It encompasses both direct participation and indirect involvement in shaping policies (Firhi, 1997, p. 44; McClosky, 1968; Milbreth & Goel, 2006). Additionally, political participation serves as a tool for political development (Åberg & Sandberg, 2017; Boutilier, 2017; Welzel et al., 2018), fosters relationships, enhances social cohesion and trust, and facilitates interactions between citizens and the government (La Due Lake & Huckfeldt, 1998). Political participation also refers to both legitimate and illegitimate methods used to influence the selection of leaders, the formulation of policies, and the overall administration of government (Milbrath, 1981). It is a crucial aspect of a nation’s political life and leadership (Ashtrian & Amirzadeh, 2012) and serves as a means of shaping government policies and influencing the selection of government officials (Effing et al, 2011).Materials and MethodsThis research employed a meta-synthesis approach to analyze both quantitative and qualitative studies published between 2007 and 2021. A non-probability purposive sampling method was used, resulting in a final sample of 23 research documents. These documents were selected based on their reliability, validity, research quality, adherence to scientific criteria, and relevance to the obstacles to women’s political participation. The data collection and analysis was carried out in several stages. First, the keywords participation, women, women’s political participation, and obstacles to women's political participation were searched across various databases, including Noormags, Iranian journals and magazines, Scientific Information Database (SID), and IranDoc. From an initial pool of 56 documents, 23 were chosen for analysis. The selected documents were then examined based on five main categories: 1) general characteristics, 2) research objectives and questions, 3) research methodology, 4) investigated variables, and 5) findings and results analysis.Results and DiscussionThe research results indicate that the main obstacles to women’s political participation in Iran can be categorized into six categories: social, cultural, political, economic, psychological, and demographic. Social obstacles include the male-dominated atmosphere of society, social discrimination, and gendered job opportunities. Cultural obstacles stem from traditional and cultural norms, the educational system, and tribal–patriarchal models. Political obstacles involve political obstruction, prevailing political beliefs, male political dominance, and a low political culture. Economic obstacles include economic inequality, economic anomie, and financial dependence. Psychological obstacles are linked to low self-confidence, psychological beliefs, and a sense of psychological anomie. Demographic factors encompass climate, location, family, and physiological factors. The research findings suggest that the main obstacles to women’s political participation in Iran can be categorized into six categories: social, cultural, political, economic, psychological, and demographic. Social obstacles are linked to factors such as education, socialization, gender stereotypes, levels of literacy and awareness, economic power, and access to communication means. Cultural obstacles stem from deeply ingrained beliefs and convictions among people. Political obstacles are largely influenced by the structure and nature of the political system. Finally, economic obstacles are shaped by prevailing economic conditions.ConclusionThe political participation of women, who make up a significant portion of the country’s population, can contribute to improved decision-making, a better understanding of sociopolitical life, the creation of new political values and attitudes, the reduction of sociopolitical inequalities, and, ultimately, sociopolitical development.
Political Sociology
Akbar Zolfaghari; Taha Ashayeri; Fatemeh Mahtabi
Abstract
IntroductionPolitical apathy refers to someone’s disinterest, reluctance, and passivity towards political participation. The present research aimed to investigate the factors that contributed to political apathy during the period 2001–2022. To accomplish this, the study employed a meta-analysis ...
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IntroductionPolitical apathy refers to someone’s disinterest, reluctance, and passivity towards political participation. The present research aimed to investigate the factors that contributed to political apathy during the period 2001–2022. To accomplish this, the study employed a meta-analysis approach to synthesize the results of scattered experimental studies and answer the question of what factors influenced political apathy and to what extent they explained it.Materials and MethodsThis study employed a quantitative meta-analysis approach to identify and categorize studies related to the factors influencing political apathy during 2001–2022. The statistical population comprised 23 research documents, from which 11 documents were selected based on the criteria such as method, validity, reliability, and scientific findings. The selection criteria included method, sample size, correlation coefficients, significance level, statistical population, and year of publication. Having been analyzed in terms of correlation coefficients, sample size, and significance level, the selected studies were entered into Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 2 software, and the final effect size of each research study was estimated. The funnel plot and Q-test were used to determine the homogeneity or heterogeneity. After confirming heterogeneity between the studies, the article used a moderating variable to explain the factors affecting political apathy in the period. The current research employed specific criteria to select the relevant studies for analysis, including:Specific subject area: The research must have examined the factors influencing political apathy, either as the primary or ancillary objective.Specific geographical location: Only scientific–research articles and theses conducted in Iran were examined in this study.Specific research method: Only quantitative studies were selected for analysis since meta-analysis focuses on quantitative research.Research validity: Given the fact that the validity of any meta-analysis depends on the validity of the studies analyzed, the present research selected the relevant studies based on their validity and reliability which were ensured through strict evaluation criteria such as validity and reliability reports.Clarity of statistical findings: In line with the protocols of meta-analysis, the studies were selected based on the accurate and correct reporting of statistical findings, as well as their compliance with the assumptions of statistical tests and input criteria of the software.The research studies on the factors influencing political apathy were selected based on the above criteria, which indicates the use of a purposeful sampling method. As a result, 23 research documents were selected for analysis in the current research.Results and DiscussionThe study revealed a significant and positive relationship between political, social, cultural, economic, and demographic factors and political apathy. Political factors such as political distrust, dissatisfaction, alienation, lack of citizenship rights, anomie, and low political culture were found to be closely associated with political apathy. Social factors, including social anomie, commitment, health, national identity, low social vitality, organizational and occupational identity, lack of social transparency, feeling of social injustice, lawlessness, and low quality of life, were also found to contribute to political apathy. Cultural factors such as domestic media consumption, the level of religiosity, social and satellite networks, cultural anomie, and individualism were identified as influencing political apathy. Concerning economic factors, economic capital, relative deprivation, unemployment, and socio-economic class were found to be associated with political apathy. Finally, demographic factors such as education, place of residence, age, and marital status had a significant relationship with political apathy.ConclusionThe study concluded that political apathy is influenced by various economic, political, cultural, and social factors. To prevent the emergence and occurrence of this phenomenon, it is necessary to encourage political participation of citizens in societal affairs by improving their socio-economic status, enhancing self-esteem and sense of efficiency, increasing political and social trust, strengthening religiosity, promoting social justice, and providing greater life satisfaction. Other strategies to increase people’s political participation and prevent political apathy include raising political awareness, fostering hope for future change, ensuring proportional reward for participation, promoting social satisfaction and sense of effectiveness, cultivating citizens’ optimism about the future, increasing political and economic efficiency, strengthening socio-political capital, enhancing political education, empowering citizens, fostering social belonging and individual motivation, promoting accountability of rulers, improving efficiency and effectiveness of institutions and organizations, preventing corruption and political violence, increasing incomes, expanding education, improving social status, building trust in the government, promoting economic development, expanding traditional political culture, and ensuring political and social equality.
Political Sociology
Jalil Dara; Javad Alaee
Abstract
IntroductionDistribution and redistribution, as one of the specialized functions within the political system, aims to address inequalities and reduce socio-economic disparities. It holds a pivotal role in the systemic approach, as the success or failure of these efforts can significantly influence the ...
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IntroductionDistribution and redistribution, as one of the specialized functions within the political system, aims to address inequalities and reduce socio-economic disparities. It holds a pivotal role in the systemic approach, as the success or failure of these efforts can significantly influence the level of support for the political system. Following the Revolution, the Islamic Republic embarked on a mission to narrow the class gap across various strata of society by adopting distribution and redistribution policies with the ultimate aim of realizing justice. The Iranian political system thus adopted a proactive stance and function regarding distribution and redistribution, commencing with land reforms at the onset of the Islamic Revolution and progressing through various policy initiatives over the span of four decades. While the impact of the distribution and redistribution policies can be objectively assessed through statistical data and indicators, it is equally crucial to take into account people’s subjective perceptions of such policies. This subjective perception often carries substantial weight, sometimes even outweighing the tangible outcomes of policies, significantly influencing the political behavior of individuals within society. In this respect, the present research tried to address the degree of success of the post-Revolution distribution and redistribution policies, and their impact on people’s political action.Literature ReviewMehrgan and Ezzati (2008) delved into the impact of various factors, including taxes, per capita income, literacy levels, unemployment, and inflation rates, on citizens’ political participation. The findings revealed that inflation and unemployment significantly reduced electoral participation in the provinces. Conversely, higher levels of literacy and per capita income were associated with increased political engagement of citizens. Saboktakin et al. (2015) concluded that a substantial 99% correlation exists between social and political participation, with a 53% correlation observed for political satisfaction and an 18% correlation for social satisfaction. Furthermore, there is a significant relationship between the socio-economic base and political participation. The results of the regression analysis indicated that among these three variables, political satisfaction had the most significant impact on participation, while social satisfaction had the least impact on social and political participation. Analyzing the economic redistribution policies, Hatami (2012) demonstrated that during the 9th and 10th governments of the Islamic Republic of Iran, there existed a set of peripheral economic policies, such as Justice Shares (Saham-e Edalat), Mehr Housing Plan, and targeted subsidies. These policies interacted with the broader social and electoral context, leading to a complex reciprocal relationship. As a result, Hatami identified two distinct syndromes in the redistribution policies of the governments. The first syndrome pertained to how the peripheral policies of the government exacerbated the conflict between the center and periphery and turned invisible economic conflicts into socially determining issues. The second syndrome involved the interplay between class aspects of the government and its political ramifications. Instead of the government acting as a party to these conflicts and as an agent in class conflicts, it should play the role of a neutral arbitrator and mediator in resolving class conflicts. This suggests that the government should work towards enhancing its public image and role in this regard.Materials and MethodsThe present research adopted a descriptive–analytical approach and a documentary method. The study aimed to propose a theoretical framework by adapting the systems theories of Almond and Powell as well as Robert Merton’s theory.ConclusionBoth statistical data and public perception of policy outcomes showed that these policies and institutions exhibited relative inefficiency during the period from 2011 to 2020, leading to exacerbating the existing inequalities and fostering a perception of injustice. Additionally, people’s assessment of the economic situation underscores the inefficiency of such policies, particularly evident in the feedback loop within the system. It is worth noting that a key indicator of support for a political system, particularly in electoral systems, is the level of political participation. An increase in political participation signifies the effective functioning of the political system, while a decline serves as a warning to the political system, indicating diminishing support. A comparative analysis of the outcomes of distribution and redistribution policies, coupled with the levels of political apathy and the participation rate from 2011 to 2020, clearly revealed a significant connection between the effectiveness of resource (re)distribution and the electoral participation rate as an indicator of the level of support for the political system. The inefficiency of these policies and institutions has grown increasingly conspicuous, exacerbating economic and social inequalities and fostering a prevailing sense of political apathy and hopelessness among the citizens. This factor can be considered one of the root causes contributing to the declining participation rates in both presidential and parliamentary elections.
Political Sociology
Taha Ashayeri; Akbar Zolfaghari; Tahereh Jahanparvar; Faezeh Raghami
Abstract
IntroductionPolitical–ethnic violence arises from abrupt, heterogeneous, and disruptive social development and changes that lead to social disorganization and multidimensional anomie. Related to the social structure, political violence results from the unequal distribution of opportunities, discrimination, ...
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IntroductionPolitical–ethnic violence arises from abrupt, heterogeneous, and disruptive social development and changes that lead to social disorganization and multidimensional anomie. Related to the social structure, political violence results from the unequal distribution of opportunities, discrimination, and deprivation, carrying destabilizing consequences for the political system. Experts identify several factors as causes of political–ethnic violence, including the erosion of social capital, increasing individualism, declining civil cohesion, economic pressures, widening class gaps, discrimination, and external provocations. In this respect, the present research aimed to investigate the factors underlying political–ethnic violence by adopting a meta-analysis approach, focusing on the researches conducted during 2007–2021. Materials and MethodsThe research method employed in this study is a quantitative meta-analysis. The researcher identified relevant studies by conducting a comprehensive review of the literature and researches conducted during 2007–2021, focusing specifically on political–ethnic violence. A sample size of 20 documents was selected after careful consideration of methodological rigor, reliability, and validity. The documents were then categorized and organized according to the research method, sample size, correlation coefficients, significance level, statistical population, and publication year. The values of correlation coefficients, sample size, and significance level, were entered into the second edition of Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) software. The Q-test, together with the funnel chart, was utilized to assess the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the studies. After confirming the heterogeneity hypothesis, the research employed a moderating (contextual) to measure its impact on political violence.Table 1. Summary of Meta-Analysis Research Results and DiscussionThe findings of the study revealed a significant relationship between various factors and the political–ethnic violence. The identified factors are related to discrimination (including social, political, and economic discrimination), identity (including religious identity, ethnic identity, ethnic subculture patterns, and national identity), deprivation (including cultural, political, and social deprivation), social capital (such as sociopolitical cohesion, trust, participation, awareness, and low political culture), psychological makeup (involving feelings of ethnic dignity, social satisfaction, ethnic tension and difference, alienation, and social isolation), and context (such as education, income, and social class). According to the results, there is a higher tendency towards political–ethnic violence among males (18%) compared to females (15%). Furthermore, the study indicates that the level of political–ethnic violence is higher Turkish (19%) and Lur and Arab ethnic groups (17%) followed by a more moderate level in Kurdish (12%) and Persian (11%) ethnic groups. The Baloch and Turkmen ethnic groups exhibit a lower tendency towards political-ethnic violence with the figure of 10%. In addition, the findings suggest that the inclination towards political violence is higher in less developed areas (18%), moderate in developing regions (13%), and lower in developed areas (10%). ConclusionThe results indicate that political violence is deeply rooted in society and culture, often triggered by rapid and sudden social changes, class and economic gaps, and social disorganization over time. The failure of social institutions to regulate class dynamics effectively creates a sense of multiple deprivation among ethnic groups, leading to the emergence of political–ethnic violence. Media advertisements, both domestic and foreign, and the influence of sectarian movements in the real world and cyberspace also play a significant role in initiating, perpetuating, and intensifying political violence. The decline in sociopolitical capital, widening social and class disparities, and a sense of multiple deprivation and multidimensional anomie provide fertile ground for violence to flourish. The greater the sense of failure, deprivation, and frustration, the higher the likelihood of aggression towards the perceived source of these problems. Moreover, the severity of deprivation directly correlates with the intensity of violence. Mass media amplifies and accelerates psychological pressure for radical and violent actions. The weakening management, control, organization, and efficiency of social structures provide the ground for anomie and social disorder, ultimately leading to the emergence of political violence as a response to the relative deprivation, discrimination, and social isolation.
